الجمعة، 29 يوليو 2011

Genetic Engineering and Its Dangers




I originally constructed this web site primarily for the benefit of the students in my classes at San Francisco State University, from which I am now retired. (I am currently a research professor at the Institute for World Religions in Berkeley, California.) I am leaving the site online in the hope that people will still find it to be useful. All of the material is copyrighted. Permission is granted for individual, single copy, personal use only. Please send suggestions, corrections, broken links, and inquiries about other use of the materials to me at epstein@sfsu.edu.

                                                                                                                      
  
TENTH ANNIVERSARY YEAR
SITE FOUNDED IN 1996

 
ESSAYS ABOUT GENETIC ENGINEERINGGENETICALLY ENGINEERING 
HUMAN BEINGS
GENETICALLY ENGINEERED 
PLANTS AND FOOD		INTERNET LINKS
GENETIC ENGINEERING AND BIOWARFAREBOOKS ON THE DANGERS OF GENETIC ENGINEERING


 
ESSAYS ABOUT GENETIC ENGINEERING
"What is Genetic Engineering?" by Dr. Ricarda Steinbrecher
"The Rest Of The Story Behind Genetic Engineering: An Interview with Brian Tokar" by Mark Oshinskie 
"PR for the 'Book of Life'" by Jackie Stevens
"Synthetic Life" by W. Wayt Gibbs 
"Unraveling the DNA Myth: The Spurious Foundation of Genetic Engineering" by Barry Commoner
"Data Stored in Multiplying Bacteria" by Natasha McDowell 
"Genetic Copy of Cat Not a Copycat after All" by Kristen Hays 
GM Microbes Invade North America 
"Mice 'make human proteins in semen'" by Dr David Whitehouse 
"Mice produce sperm from monkeys" by Dr David Whitehouse 
"Killer virus: An engineered mouse virus leaves us one step away from the ultimate bioweapon" by Rachel Nowak 
"Rebellious Bodies Dim the Glow of `Natural' Biotech Drugs" by Andrew Pollack
"Klebsiella planticola--The Gene-Altered Monster That Almost Got Away" by Elaine Ingham
"Biohazards: The Next Generation?" by Brian Tokar
"Biotech at 25--Too Soon to Celebrate"
"Splicing the Sting Out of Bugs" by Aaron Zitner
Ethical and Religious Questions
Technical Information
GENETICALLY ENGINEERED PLANTS AND FOOD
General Information

True Food Shopping List: How to Avoid Genetically Engineered Food

5 reasons to keep Britain [and the rest of the world] GM-free "Super Organics" by Richard Manning "GM TRIALS TO FIND MEDICINE RAISE NEW ETHICAL FEARS; HUMAN GENE CROP FURY" by JOHN INGHAM AND TOBY MOORE 
"Genetically Modified Foods: Are They a Risk to Human/Animal Health?" By Arpad Pusztai, Ph.D.
"Transgenic DNA introgressed into traditional maize landraces in Oaxaca, Mexico" by David Quist and Ignacio H. Chapela Worldwide Initiatives Against GMOs"Bad Bad seeds in court: when genetically modified plants contaminate their crops, organic farmers fight big biotech" by Thomas Hayden"GM Trials to Find Medicine Raise New Ethical Fears; Human Gene Crop Fury" by John Ingham and Toby Moore
"THE 'GOLDEN RICE' HOAX  -When Public Relations replaces Science" by Dr. Vandana Shiva"NASA's Earth plants could invade Mars" by David Perlman
USDA Says Yes to Terminator
Technical Information
GENETIC ENGINEERING AND BIOWARFARE
Bioterror Researchers Build a More Lethal Mousepox 
"Now for GM weapons: It's time to get tough with the biotech firms over germ warfare" by Jeremy Rifkin 
Bioterrorism issue of Emerging Infectious Diseases (July/August, 1999, v5n4) 
"The Demon in the Freezer" by Richard Preston
"Ebola Virus Could Be Synthesised" by Sylvia Pagàn Westphal
"Scientists Create a Live Polio Virus" by Andrew Pollack
"Bioterror And Biosafety" by Vandana Shiva
"US Non-lethal Weapon Reports Suppressed" by Debora MacKenzie
"Single Gene Leap Led to Flea-Borne Transmission of Plague Bacterium" by Laurie K. Doepel
"A Terrifying Power" by Philip Cohen
"Prepare for the Worst" By Rachel Nowak "With Biotechnology, a Potential to Harm" by Andrew Pollack
"Now for GM weapons: It's time to get tough with the biotech firms over germ warfare" by Jeremy RifkinProject Censored: Human Genome Project Opens the Door to Ethnically Specific Bioweapons
"Secret U.S. Germ Tests Threat to Treaty" by Roland Watson
GENETICALLY ENGINEERING HUMAN BEINGS
"Engineering Humans" by Rachel Massey
"The New Eugenics: The Case Against Genetically Modified Humans" by Marcy Darnovsky
"Scientists Raise Spectre of Gene-Modified Athletes" by James Randerson
"Gods and Monsters: Talking apes, flying pigs, superhumans with armadillo attributes, and other strange considerations of Dr. Stuart Newman's fight to patent a human/animal chimera" by Mark Dowie 
FRONTLINE "Organ Farm: The Risks of Xenotransplantation" 
"The Threshold Challenge of the New Human Genetic Technologies"
"Governing the Genome" by Ralph Brave
"The Human Genome Map: The Death of Genetic Determinism and Beyond" by Mae-Wan Ho
"Genetically Altered Babies Born" by Dr. David Whitehouse

INTERNET LINKS
SOME RECOMMENDED BOOKS ON THE DANGERS OF GENETIC ENGINEERING
Bill McKibben. Enough: Staying Human in an Engineered Age. NY: Henry Holt, 2003.
Jeffrey M Smith. Seeds of Deception: Exposing Industry and Government Lies about the Safety of the Genetically Engineered Foods You're Eating. Chelsea Green Publishing Company, 2003.
Marc Lappe and Britt Bailey, eds. Engineering the Farm: The Social and Ethical Aspects of Agricultural Biotechnology. Covelo, CA: Island Press, 2002.
Kathleen Hart. Eating in the Dark: America's Experiment With Genetically Engineered Food.Pantheon, 2002.
Brian Tokar, ed. Redesigning Life? The Worldwide Challenge to Genetic Engineering. McGill-Queens University Press, 2001.
Ronnie Cummins and Ben Lilliston. Genetically Engineered Food: A Self-Defense Guide for Consumers. Marlowe & Company, 2000.
Richard Heinberg. Cloning the Buddha: The Moral Impact of Biotechnology. Wheaton Il: Quest, 1999.
British Medical Association. Biotechnology, Weapons and Humanity. London: BMJ Bookshop, 1999.
Mae-Wan Ho. Genetic Engineering, Dream or Nightmare. Gateway Books, 1998.
Marc Lappe and Britt Bailey. Against the Grain:the Genetic Gamble with Our Food. Common Courage Press,1998.
Jeremy Rifkin. The Biotech Century: Harnessing the Gene and Remaking the World. Tarcher/Putnam, 1998.
Vandana Shiva. Biopiracy : The Plunder of Nature and Knowledge. Boston: South End Press, 1997.
Ruth Hubbard and Elijah Wald. Exploding the Gene Myth. Rev. ed. Boston: Beacon Press, 1997.
Jane Rissler and Margaret Mellon. The Ecological Risks of Engineered Crops. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1996.
Robin and Laura Ticciati. Genetically Engineered Foods: Are They Safe? You Decide. Keats, 1998.
John Fagan. Genetic Engineering: the Hazards, Vedic Engineering: the Solution. MIU Press, 1995
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Human genetic engineering


Human genetic engineering is the alteration of an individual's genotype with the aim of choosing the phenotype of a newborn or changing the existing phenotype of a child or adult.[1] It holds the promise of curing genetic diseases like cystic fibrosis, and increasing the immunity of people to viruses. It is speculated that genetic engineering could be used to change physical appearance, metabolism, and even improve mental faculties like memory and intelligence, although for now these uses seem to be of lower priority to researchers and are therefore limited to science fiction.

Contents

 [hide]

[edit]History

The first gene therapy trials on humans began in 1990 on patients with Severe Combined Immunodeficiency (SCID). In 2000, the first gene therapy "success" resulted in SCID patients with a functional immune system. These trials were stopped when it was discovered that two of ten patients in one trial had developed leukemia resulting from the insertion of the gene-carrying retrovirus near an oncogene. In 2007, four of the ten patients had developed leukemia .[2] Work is now focusing on correcting the gene without triggering an oncogene.
Trial treatments of SCID have been gene therapy's only success; since 1999, gene therapy has restored the immune systems of at least 17 children with two forms (ADA-SCID and X-SCID) of the disorder.
Human genetic engineering is already being used on a small scale to allow infertile women with genetic defects in their mitochondria to have children.[3] Healthy human eggs from a second mother are used. The child produced this way has genetic information from two mothers and one father.[3] The changes made are germline changes and will likely be passed down from generation to generation, and, thus, are a permanent change to the human genome.[3]
Other forms of human genetic engineering are still theoretical. Recombinant DNA research is usually performed to study gene expression and various human diseases. Some drastic demonstrations of gene modification have been made with mice and other animals, however, testing on humans is generally considered off-limits.[citation needed] In some instances changes are usually brought about by removing genetic material from one organism and transferring them into another species.

[edit]Methods

[edit]Somatic

Somatic genetic engineering involves adding genes to cells other than egg or sperm cells. For example, if a person had a disease caused by a defective gene, a healthy gene could be added to the affected cells to treat the disorder. As of now, this is likely to take the form of gene therapy. The distinguishing characteristic of somatic engineering is that it is non-inheritable, i.e. the new gene would not be passed to the recipient’s offspring.
There are two techniques researchers are currently experimenting with:
  • Viruses are good at injecting their DNA payload into human cells and reproducing it. By adding the desired DNA to the DNA of non-pathogenic virus, a small amount of virus will reproduce the desired DNA and spread it all over the body.
  • Manufacture large quantities of DNA, and somehow package it to induce the target cells to accept it, either as an addition to one of the original 23 chromosomes, or as an independent 24th human artificial chromosome.

[edit]Germline

Germline engineering involves changing genes in eggs, sperm, or very early embryos. This type of engineering is inheritable, meaning that the modified genes would appear not only in offspring that resulted from the procedure, but also in subsequent generations.

[edit]Uses

Two motivators of human genetic engineering are referred to as "negative" and "positive". The former aims to remove genetic disorders and the latter aims to alter phenotypic expression to result in an enhanced being.

[edit]Negative genetic engineering (cures and treatments)

When treating problems that arise from genetic disorder, one solution is gene therapy, also known as negative genetic engineering. A genetic disorder is a condition caused by the genetic code of the individual, such as spina bifida.[4] When this happens, genes may be expressed in unfavorable ways or not at all, and this generally leads to further complications.
The idea of gene therapy is that a non-pathogenic virus or other delivery systems can be used to insert into DNA—a good copy of the gene—into cells of the living individual. The modified cells would divide as normal and each division would produce cells that express the desired trait. The result would be that he/she would then have the ability to express the trait that was previously absent, at least partially. This form of genetic engineering could help alleviate many problems, such as diabetes, cystic fibrosis, or other genetic diseases.

[edit]Positive genetic engineering (enhancement)

The potential of genetic engineering to cure medical conditions opens the question of exactly what such a condition is. Some view aging and death as medical conditions and therefore potential targets for engineering solutions. They see human genetic engineering potentially as a key tool in this (see life extension). The difference between cure and enhancement from this perspective is merely one of degree. Theoretically genetic engineering could be used to drastically change people's genomes, which could enable people to regrow limbs and other organs, perhaps even extremely complex ones such as the spine.
It could also be used to make people smarter, stronger, or to increase the capacity of the lungs, among other things. If a gene exists in nature, perhaps it could be changed into a human cell. In this view, there is no qualitative difference (only a quantitative one) between, for instance, a genetic intervention to cure muscular atrophy, and a genetic intervention to improve muscle function even when those muscles are functioning at or below the human average (since there is also an average muscle function for those with a particular type of dystrophy, which the treatment would improve upon).
Others feel, there is an important distinction between using genetic technologies to treat those who are suffering, and to make those who are already healthy seem more superior to the average person. Though theory and speculation suggest, that genetic engineering could be used to make people stronger, faster, smarter, or to increase lung capacity. The AAAS report finds that there is little evidence to support this theory. Current technology is not advanced enough to perform this task safely, and therefore any human experiments would be dangerous and unethical. Because different cells have different tasks, changing one cell to do a function differently, will not only affect that one task, but it can affect many other tasks as well.

[edit]Controversy

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[edit]Ethics

The genetic engineering of humans has raised many controversial ethical issues. While negative genetic engineering (gene therapy) does indeed raise a debate, the use of genetic engineering for human enhancement arouses the strongest feelings on both sides.[5]
Genetic engineering is tested on animals, often including primates. Some animal rights activists find this inhumane.[6]
The heart of the debate lies in who has the right to modify an unborn human. Some believe that every fetus has an inherent right to be genetically modified. Others believe that parents hold the rights to change their unborn children.[7] Still others believe that every child should have the right to be born free from preventable diseases.
Molecular Biologist Lee M. Silver believes that unlike Aldous Huxley’s Brave New World, where a totalitarian government controls all of the genetic enhancements (they actually use eugenics instead of direct genetic modification) in society, the use of gene therapy to design children will be spread through what he calls “free market eugenics” (Silver 315). Wealthy families will opt to design their child with genetic advantages because other families are doing so, and everybody wants to provide their newborn child with the best opportunities in life, with a leg up on the competition.
The greatest fear for Silver is that we will design so many children with germline gene therapy, that the families wealthy enough to design their children, will pass down these enhanced traits to future generations. This gene therapy will obviously cost money, and the less wealthy families will be left to procreate naturally, and introduce their children into the world disadvantaged from their first breath.
The impact on society will be a new alignment of classes, no longer will we separate people by their ethnic differences, the new division will be between what Silver calls ‘the naturals’ and ‘the GenRich’, or genetically enhanced. The major worry here is that the ‘genetic gulf’ between these two classes will become so wide that humans will diverge into separate species (Silver 313), although it should be stated that there is no biological evidence for this whatsoever.

[edit]In popular culture

  • Maximum Ride series by James Patterson: The main characters are six human children who had bird DNA injected into them while they were in their mothers' wombs.
  • Mobile Suit Gundam SEED (anime): Set in a world in which genetically modified humans, termed 'Coordinators', have been ostracized and isolated from unmodified humans, termed 'Naturals'. Due to extreme differences in mental and physical abilities between the two groups, racial, economic, and political issues have arisen, culminating in war. Gundam Seed addresses such concerns as animosity caused by the jealousy of Naturals over Coordinator abilities, both groups looking down on one another as being lesser life forms, and genocidal factions emerging on both sides. The series primarily explores these issues from the point of view of a Coordinator protagonist who finds himself fighting on the side of the naturals, as his childhood friend has become a member of the Coordinator military, giving a perspective on both sides of the conflict.
  • Gattaca (film): Presents a biopunk vision of a society driven by new eugenics. Children of the middle and upper classes are selected through preimplantation genetic diagnosis to ensure they possess the best hereditary traits of their parents.
  • Bioshock (Video game): The main enemies the player encounters over the course of the game are known as splicers, so called for their genetic manipulation, or gene splicing. In the game a compound called ADAM is responsible for the genetic manipulation. The compound is harvested from a species of sea slugs, it acts like a seemingly benign form of cancer, destroying native cells and replacing them with the unstable stem versions. The splicers have all become so addicted to the ADAM that they will kill anything or anyone for it.
  • Old Man's War series by John Scalzi: To create an army of soldiers capable of defending the human race from endless alien hordes the Colonial Defense Forces recruits 75 year olds and gives them new younger bodies capable of super human feats.
  • Batman Beyond: In the episode Splicers and making appearances later in the series, a new fad of splicing animal genes for cosmetic and enhancement purposes makes the teen scene. When research shows that splicing increases aggression in users, resulting it being banned in Gotham, only finding a place in the criminal underworld later. Notable Splicers are Woof of the Jokerz (spliced with hyena DNA), and the Zander (spliced with T-Rex DNA), leader of KOBRA.
  • Halo (series) (Video game): the protagonist and several other characters in the Halo universe known as Spartans have all gone through comprehensive genetic augmentation, making them almost super human. The augmentations vary from Muscular Enhancement Injections to a Catalytic Thyroid Implant. The effects include nearly unbreakable bones, increased reflexes and increased muscle tissue with increased density. The SPARTAN-III program also included a mutagen that increased aggression and injury tolerance.
  • Deus Ex: The protagonists of both games in the series are genetically modified by injections called nano-augs (Deus Ex) and bio mods (Invisible War). These nanite injections alter the host's genes to enhance them with new skill that would help them through different obstacles in the game. Both the protagonists and antagonists are bio-modified along with other support characters and neutral characters.
  • PROTOTYPE: The story is centered around a genetic engineering company called Gentek. The engineers in Gentek modified a chimeran-virus to make it 10 times as deadly, to 'unlock' previously dormant parts of a subjects DNA, and they made it to the point of where it could copy those infected with it down to the genetic level. The new 'infected' being then has complete and total control over its genetic structure, allowing it to develop instantaneous shape-shifting abilities. However, the game reveals that the only 'infected' being that can do this is a person already dead (or dying) when the virus enters the bloodstream. The virus must also be in a state of emergency to survive and not die out.
  • Warhammer 40,000: In the games, and table-top series, Space marines are the result of Genetic Engineering, by replacing organs, and limbs that have been engineered. The Marine himself also goes through rigorous physical and mental training in order to make him more accustomed to the newly added appendages and organs.

[edit]See also

[edit]References

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2007)
  1. ^ Singer, Peter; Kuhese, Helga. Bioethics: An Anthology.
  2. ^ Press release from the European Society of Gene Therapy
  3. ^ a b c "Genetically altered babies born". BBC News. 2001-05-04. Retrieved 2008-04-26.
  4. ^ "Yahoo Education: Definition of genetic disorder". Retrieved 2008-03-26.
  5. ^ Glover, Jonathan (1984). What Sort of People Should There Be?. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books.
  6. ^ Dresser, Rebecca. "Designing Babies: Human Research Issues." IRB: Ethics & Human Research 26.5 (Sep. 2004): 1-8.
  7. ^ Resnik, David B., and Daniel B. Vorhaus. "Genetic modification and genetic determinism." Philosophy, Ethics, and Humanities in Medicine (2006): 1-11.
8. Sandel, Michael J. The Case Against Perfection. Michael J. Sandel, 2007.
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